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Oliver Cromwell

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Oliver Cromwell
Portrait of Oliver Cromwell by Samuel Cooper.
In office 16 December 1653 – 3 September 1658 (&0000000000000004.0000004 years, &0000000000000261.000000261 days)
Preceded by Council of State
Succeeded by Richard Cromwell
Member of Parliament for Cambridge
In office 1640–1642
Monarch Charles I
In office 1640–1640
Member of Parliament for Huntingdon
In office 1628–1629
Born 25 April 1599(1599-04-25) Huntingdon, Cambridgeshire
Died 3 September 1658 (aged 59) Whitehall, London
Resting place Tyburn, London
Nationality English
Spouse(s) Elizabeth Bourchier
Relations Robert Cromwell (father) Elizabeth Cromwell (mother)
Children Robert Cromwell Oliver Cromwell Bridget Cromwell Richard Cromwell, Lord Protector Henry Cromwell, Lord Deputy of Ireland Elizabeth Cromwell Mary Cromwell Frances Cromwell
Alma mater Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge
Occupation Farmer; Parliamentarian; Military commander
Religion Puritan (Independent)
Signature
Military service
Nickname(s) Old Ironsides
Allegiance Roundhead
Service/branch Eastern Association (1643–1645); New Model Army (1645–1646)
Years of service 1643–1651
Rank Colonel (1643–bef. 1644); Lieutenant-General of Horse (bef. 1644–1645); Lieutenant-General of Cavalry (1645–1646)
Commands Cambridgeshire Ironsides (1643–bef. 1644); Eastern Association (bef. 1644–1645); New Model Army (1645–1646)
Battles/wars Gainsborough; Marston Moor; Newbury II; Naseby; Langport; Preston; Dunbar; Worcester

Oliver Cromwell (25 April 1599 – 3 September 1658) was an English military and political leader best known for his involvement in making England into a republican Commonwealth and for his later role as Lord Protector of England, Scotland, and Ireland.

He was one of the commanders of the New Model Army which defeated the royalists in the English Civil War. After the execution of King Charles I in 1649, Cromwell dominated the short-lived Commonwealth of England, conquered Ireland and Scotland, and ruled as Lord Protector from 1653 until his death from malaria in 1658.

Cromwell was born into the ranks of the middle gentry, and remained relatively obscure for the first 40 years of his life. At times his lifestyle resembled that of a yeoman farmer until his finances were boosted thanks to an inheritance from his uncle. After undergoing a religious conversion during the same decade, he made an Independent style of Puritanism an essential part of his life. Cromwell was elected Member of Parliament for Cambridge in the Short (1640) and Long (1640-49) Parliaments, and later entered the English Civil War on the side of the "Roundheads" or Parliamentarians.

As a soldier, he was more than capable (nicknamed "Old Ironsides") and was quickly promoted from leading a single cavalry troop to command of the entire army. Cromwell was one of the signatories of Charles I's death warrant in 1649 and was a member of the Rump Parliament (1649-1653), being chosen by the Rump to take command of the English campaign in Ireland during 1649-50. He then led a campaign against the Scottish army between 1650 and 1651. On 20 April 1653 he dismissed the Rump Parliament by force, setting up a short-lived nominated assembly known as the Barebones Parliament before being made Lord Protector of England, Wales, Scotland and Ireland on 16 December 1653. He was buried in Westminster Abbey, but when the Royalists returned to power his corpse was dug up, hung in chains, and beheaded.

Cromwell has been a controversial figure in the history of the British Isles – a regicidal dictator to some historians (such as David Hume and Christopher Hill) and a hero of liberty to others (such as Thomas Carlyle and Samuel Rawson Gardiner). In Britain he was elected as one of the Top 10 Britons of all time in a 2002 BBC poll.[1] His measures against Irish Catholics have been characterized by some historians as genocidal or near-genocidal,[2] and in Ireland itself he is widely hated.[3][4]

Cromwell dissolving the Long Parliament, by Andrew Carrick Gow

From the middle of 1649 until 1651, Cromwell was away on campaign. In the meantime, with the king gone (and with him their common cause), the various factions in Parliament began to engage in infighting. On his return, Cromwell tried to galvanise the Rump into setting dates for new elections, uniting the three kingdoms under one polity, and to put in place a broad-brush, tolerant national church. However, the Rump vacillated in setting election dates, and although it put in place a basic liberty of conscience, it failed to produce an alternative for tithes or dismantle other aspects of the existing religious settlement. In frustration, in April 1653 Cromwell demanded that the Rump establish a caretaker government of 40 members (drawn both from the Rump and the army) and then abdicate. However, the Rump returned to debating its own bill for a new government.[78] Cromwell was so angered by this that on 20 April 1653, supported by about forty musketeers, he cleared the chamber and dissolved the Parliament by force. Several accounts exist of this incident: in one, Cromwell is supposed to have said "you are no Parliament, I say you are no Parliament; I will put an end to your sitting".[79] At least two accounts agree that Cromwell snatched up the mace, symbol of Parliament's power, and demanded that the "bauble" be taken away.[80] Cromwell's troops were commanded by Charles Worsley, later one of his Major Generals and one of his most trusted advisors, to whom he entrusted the mace.

[edit] The establishment of Barebone's Parliament: 1653

After the dissolution of the Rump, power passed temporarily to a council that debated what form the constitution should take. They took up the suggestion of Major-General Thomas Harrison for a "sanhedrin" of saints. Although Cromwell did not subscribe to Harrison's apocalyptic, Fifth Monarchist beliefs – which saw a sanhedrin as the starting point for Christ's rule on earth – he was attracted by the idea of an assembly made up of men chosen for their religious credentials. In his speech at the opening of the assembly on 4 July 1653, Cromwell thanked God’s providence that he believed had brought England to this point and set out their divine mission: "truly God hath called you to this work by, I think, as wonderful providences as ever passed upon the sons of men in so short a time."[81] Sometimes known as the Parliament of Saints or more commonly the Nominated Assembly, it was also called the Barebone's Parliament after one of its members, Praise-God Barbon. The assembly was tasked with finding a permanent constitutional and religious settlement (Cromwell was invited to be a member but declined). However, the revelation that a considerably larger segment of the membership than had been believed were the radical Fifth Monarchists led to its members voting to dissolve it on 12 December 1653, out of fear of what the radicals might do if they took control of the Assembly.[82]

[edit] The Protectorate: 1653–1658

See also: The Protectorate

After the dissolution of the Barebones Parliament, John Lambert put forward a new constitution known as the Instrument of Government, closely modelled on the Heads of Proposals. It made Cromwell Lord Protector for life to undertake “the chief magistracy and the administration of government”. Cromwell was sworn in as Lord Protector on 16 December 1653, with a ceremony in which he wore plain black clothing, rather than any monarchical regalia.[83] However, from this point on Cromwell signed his name 'Oliver P', standing for Oliver Protector - in a similar style to that used by English monarchs - and it soon became the norm for others to address him as "Your highness".[84] As Protector, he had the power to call and dissolve parliaments but was obliged under the Instrument to seek the majority vote of a Council of State. Nevertheless, Cromwell's power was buttressed by his continuing popularity among the army. As the Lord Protector he was paid £100,000 a year.[85]

Cromwell had two key objectives as Lord Protector. The first was "healing and settling" the nation after the chaos of the civil wars and the regicide, which meant establishing a stable form for the new government to take.[86] Although Cromwell declared to the first Protectorate Parliament that, "Government by one man and a parliament is fundamental," in practice social priorities took precedence over forms of government. Such forms were, he said, "but... dross and dung in comparison of Christ".[87] The social priorities did not, despite the revolutionary nature of the government, include any meaningful attempt to reform the social order. Cromwell declared, "A nobleman, a gentleman, a yeoman; the distinction of these: that is a good interest of the nation, and a great one!",[88] Small-scale reform such as that carried out on the judicial system were outweighed by attempts to restore order to English politics. Direct taxation was reduced slightly and peace was made with the Dutch, ending the First Anglo-Dutch War.

England's American colonies in this period consisted of the New England Confederation, the Providence Plantation, the Virginia Colony and the Maryland Colony. Cromwell soon secured the submission of these and largely left them to their own affairs, intervening only to curb his fellow Puritans who were usurping control over the Maryland Colony, by his confirming the former Catholic proprietorship and edict of tolerance there. Of all the English dominions, Virginia was the most resentful of Cromwell's rule, and Cavalier emigration there mushroomed during the Protectorate.

Cromwell famously stressed the quest to restore order in his speech to the first Protectorate parliament at its inaugural meeting on 3 September 1654. He declared that "healing and settling" were the "great end of your meeting".[89] However, the Parliament was quickly dominated by those pushing for more radical, properly republican reforms. After some initial gestures approving appointments previously made by Cromwell, the Parliament began to work on a radical programme of constitutional reform. Rather than opposing Parliament’s bill, Cromwell dissolved them on 22 January 1655.

Cromwell's signature before becoming Lord Protector in 1653, and afterwards. 'Oliver P', standing for Oliver Protector, echoes the similar style in which English monarchs had signed their names: for example, 'Elizabeth R' standing for Elizabeth Regina.

Cromwell's second objective was spiritual and moral reform. He aimed to restore liberty of conscience and promote both outward and inly godliness throughout England.[90] During the early months of the Protectorate, a set of "triers" was established to assess the suitability of future parish ministers, and a related set of "ejectors" was set up to dismiss ministers and schoolmasters who were deemed unsuitable for office. The triers and the ejectors were intended to be at the vanguard of Cromwell's reform of parish worship. This second objective is also the context in which to see the constitutional experiment of the Major Generals that followed the dissolution of the first Protectorate Parliament. After a royalist uprising in March 1655, led by Sir John Penruddock, Cromwell (influenced by Lambert) divided England into military districts ruled by Army Major Generals who answered only to him. The 15 major generals and deputy major generals—called "godly governors"—were central not only to national security, but Cromwell's crusade to reform the nation's morals. The generals not only supervised militia forces and security commissions, but collected taxes and ensured support for the government in the English and Welsh provinces. Commissioners for securing the peace of the commonwealth were appointed to work with them in every county. While a few of these commissioners were career politicians, most were zealous puritans who welcomed the major-generals with open arms and embraced their work with enthusiasm. However, the major-generals lasted less than a year. Many feared they threatened their reform efforts and authority. Their position was further harmed by a tax proposal by Major General John Desborough to provide financial backing for their work, which the second Protectorate parliament—instated in September 1656—voted down for fear of a permanent military state. Ultimately, however, Cromwell's failure to support his men, sacrificing them to his opponents, caused their demise. Their activities between November 1655 and September 1656 had, however, reopened the wounds of the 1640s and deepened antipathies to the regime.[91]

Half-Crown coin of Oliver Cromwell, 1658. The Latin inscription reads: OLIVAR.D.G.RP.ANG. - SCO.ET.HIB&cPRO (OLIVARIUS DEI GRATIA REIPUBLICAE ANGLIAE SCOTIAE ET HIBERNIAE ET CETERORUM PROTECTOR), meaning "Oliver, by the Grace of God Protector of the Commonwealth of England, Scotland and Ireland and other (territories)".

As Lord Protector, Cromwell was aware of the contribution the Jewish community made to the economic success of Holland, now England's leading commercial rival. It was this—allied to Cromwell's toleration of the right to private worship of those who fell outside evangelical Puritanism—that led to his encouraging Jews to return to England in 1657, over 350 years after their banishment by Edward I, in the hope that they would help speed up the recovery of the country after the disruption of the Civil Wars.[92]

In 1657, Cromwell was offered the crown by Parliament as part of a revised constitutional settlement, presenting him with a dilemma, since he had been "instrumental" in abolishing the monarchy. Cromwell agonised for six weeks over the offer. He was attracted by the prospect of stability it held out, but in a speech on 13 April 1657 he made clear that God's providence had spoken against the office of king: “I would not seek to set up that which Providence hath destroyed and laid in the dust, and I would not build Jericho again”.[93] The reference to Jericho harks back to a previous occasion on which Cromwell had wrestled with his conscience when the news reached England of the defeat of an expedition against the Spanish-held island of Hispaniola in the West Indies in 1655—comparing himself to Achan, who had brought the Israelites defeat after bringing plunder back to camp after the capture of Jericho.[94] Instead, Cromwell was ceremonially re-installed as Lord Protector on 26 June 1657 (with greater powers than had previously been granted him under this title) at Westminster Hall, sitting upon King Edward's Chair which was specially moved from Westminster Abbey for the occasion. The event in part echoed a coronation, utilising many of its symbols and regalia, such as a purple ermine-lined robe, a sword of justice and a sceptre (but not a crown or an orb). But, most notably, the office of Lord Protector was still not to become hereditary, though Cromwell was now able to nominate his own successor. Cromwell's new rights and powers were laid out in the Humble Petition and Advice, a legislative instrument which replaced the Instrument of Government. Despite failing to restore the Crown, this new constitution did set up many of the vestiges of the ancient constitution including a house of life peers (in place of the House of Lords). In the Humble Petition it was called the Other House as the Commons could not agree on a suitable name. Furthermore, Oliver Cromwell increasingly took on more of the trappings of monarchy. In particular, he created two baronages after the acceptance of the Humble Petition and Advice—Charles Howard was made Viscount Morpeth and Baron Gisland in July 1657 and Edmund Dunch was created Baron Burnell of East Wittenham in April 1658. Cromwell himself, however, was at pains to minimise his role, describing himself as a constable or watchman.

[edit] Death and posthumous execution

See also: Oliver Cromwell's head
Oliver Cromwell's death mask at Warwick Castle

Cromwell is thought to have suffered from malaria (probably first contracted while on campaign in Ireland) and from "stone", a common term for urinary/kidney infections. In 1658 he was struck by a sudden bout of malarial fever, followed directly by illness symptomatic of a urinary or kidney complaint. A Venetian physician tracked Cromwell's final illness, saying Cromwell's personal physicians were mismanaging his health, leading to a rapid decline and death. The decline may also have been hastened by the death of his favourite daughter, Elizabeth Claypole, in August at the age of 29. He died at Whitehall on Friday 3 September 1658, the anniversary of his great victories at Dunbar and Worcester.[95] The most likely cause of Cromwell's death was septicaemia following his urinary infection. He was buried with great ceremony, with an elaborate funeral based on that of James I, at Westminster Abbey, his daughter Elizabeth also being buried there.[96]

He was succeeded as Lord Protector by his son Richard. Although Richard was not entirely without ability, he had no power base in either Parliament or the Army, and was forced to resign in May 1659, ending the Protectorate. There was no clear leadership from the various factions that jostled for power during the short lived reinstated Commonwealth, so George Monck, the English governor of Scotland, at the head of New Model Army regiments was able to march on London, and restore the Long Parliament. Under Monck's watchful eye the necessary constitutional adjustments were made so that in 1660 Charles II could be invited back from exile to be king under a restored monarchy.

Plaque commemorating the reinterment of Cromwell's head at Sidney Sussex College

In 1661, Oliver Cromwell's body was exhumed from Westminster Abbey, and was subjected to the ritual of a posthumous execution, as were the remains of John Bradshaw and Henry Ireton. (The body of Cromwell's daughter was allowed to remain buried in the Abbey.) Symbolically, this took place on 30 January; the same date that Charles I had been executed. His body was hanged in chains at Tyburn. Finally, his disinterred body was thrown into a pit, while his severed head was displayed on a pole outside Westminster Hall until 1685. Ironically the Cromwell vault was then used as a burial place for Charles II’s illegitimate descendants.[97] Afterwards the head changed hands several times, including the sale in 1814 to a man named Josiah Henry Wilkinson,[98][99] before eventually being buried in the grounds of Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge, in 1960.[100][101]

[edit] Political reputation

During his lifetime, some tracts painted him as a hypocrite motivated by power—for example, The Machiavilian Cromwell and The Juglers Discovered, both part of an attack on Cromwell by the Levellers after 1647, present him as a Machiavellian figure.[102] More positive contemporary assessments—for instance, John Spittlehouse in A Warning Piece Discharged — typically compared him to Moses, rescuing the English by taking them safely through the Red Sea of the civil wars.[103] Several biographies were published soon after his death. An example is The Perfect Politician, which described how Cromwell "loved men more than books" and gave a nuanced assessment of him as an energetic campaigner for liberty of conscience brought down by pride and ambition.[104] An equally nuanced but less positive assessment was published in 1667 by Edward Hyde, 1st Earl of Clarendon, in his History of the Rebellion and Civil Wars in England. Clarendon famously declared that Cromwell "will be looked upon by posterity as a brave bad man".[105] He argued that Cromwell's rise to power had been helped not only by his great spirit and energy, but also by his ruthlessness. Clarendon was not one of Cromwell's confidantes, and his account was written after the Restoration of the monarchy.[105]

During the early eighteenth century, Cromwell's image began to be adopted and reshaped by the Whigs, as part of a wider project to give their political objectives historical legitimacy. A version of Edmund Ludlow’s Memoirs, re-written by John Toland to excise the radical Puritanical elements and replace them with a Whiggish brand of republicanism, presented the Cromwellian Protectorate as a military tyranny. Through Ludlow, Toland portrayed Cromwell as a despot who crushed the beginnings of democratic rule in the 1640s.[106]

During the early nineteenth century, Cromwell began to be adopted by Romantic artists and poets. Thomas Carlyle continued this reassessment of Cromwell in the 1840s by presenting him as a hero in the battle between good and evil and a model for restoring morality to an age that Carlyle believed to have been dominated by timidity, meaningless rhetoric, and moral compromise. Cromwell's actions, including his campaigns in Ireland and his dissolution of the Long Parliament, according to Carlyle, had to be appreciated and praised as a whole.

By the late nineteenth century, Carlyle's portrayal of Cromwell, stressing the centrality of puritan morality and earnestness, had become assimilated into Whig and Liberal historiography. The Oxford civil war historian Samuel Rawson Gardiner concluded that "the man—it is ever so with the noblest—was greater than his work".[107] Gardiner stressed Cromwell’s dynamic and mercurial character, and his role in dismantling absolute monarchy, while underestimating Cromwell’s religious conviction.[108] Cromwell’s foreign policy also provided an attractive forerunner of Victorian imperial expansion, with Gardiner stressing his “constancy of effort to make England great by land and sea”.[109]

During the first half of the twentieth century, Cromwell's reputation was often influenced by the rise of fascism in Germany and Italy. Wilbur Cortez Abbott, for example—a Harvard historian—devoted much of his career to compiling and editing a multi-volume collection of Cromwell's letters and speeches. In this work, which was published between 1937 and 1947, Abbott began to argue that Cromwell was a proto-fascist. However, subsequent historians such as John Morrill have criticised both Abbott's interpretation of Cromwell and his editorial approach.[110] Ernest Barker similarly compared the Independents to the Nazis. Nevertheless, not all historical comparisons made at this time drew on contemporary military dictators.

Late twentieth century historians have re-examined the nature of Cromwell's faith and of his authoritarian regime. Austin Woolrych explored the issue of "dictatorship" in depth, arguing that Cromwell was subject to two conflicting forces: his obligation to the army and his desire to achieve a lasting settlement by winning back the confidence of the political nation as a whole. Woolrych argued that the dictatorial elements of Cromwell's rule stemmed not so much from its military origins or the participation of army officers in civil government, as from his constant commitment to the interest of the people of God and his conviction that suppressing vice and encouraging virtue constituted the chief end of government.[111]

Historians such as John Morrill, Blair Worden and J. C. Davis have developed this theme, revealing the extent to which Cromwell’s writing and speeches are suffused with biblical references, and arguing that his radical actions were driven by his zeal for godly reformation.[112]

[edit] Monuments

1899 Statue of Cromwell by Hamo Thornycroft outside the Palace of Westminster, London
  • In Westminster Abbey the site of Cromwell’s burial was marked, during the 19th century, by a floor stone, laid in what is now the Air Force Chapel, reading “THE BURIAL PLACE OF OLIVER CROMWELL 1658–1661”[113]
  • In 1875, a statue of Cromwell by Matthew Noble was erected in Manchester outside the cathedral, a gift to the city by Mrs Abel Heywood in memory of her first husband.[114] It was the first such large-scale statue to be erected in the open anywhere in England and was a realistic likeness, based on the painting by Peter Lely and showing Cromwell in battledress with drawn sword and leather body armour. The statue was unpopular with the local Conservatives and with the large Irish immigrant population alike. When Queen Victoria was invited to open the new Manchester Town Hall, she is alleged to have consented on condition that the statue of Cromwell be removed. The statue remained, Victoria declined, and the Town Hall was opened by the Lord Mayor. During the 1980s the statue was more appropriately relocated outside Wythenshawe Hall, which had been occupied by Cromwell and his troops.[115]
  • During the 1890s plans to erect a statue of Cromwell outside Parliament caused considerable controversy. Pressure from the Irish Nationalist Party[116] forced the withdrawal of a motion to seek public funding for the project and eventually it was funded privately by Lord Rosebery.[117] In 2008 the statue was restored to mark the 350th anniversary of Cromwell’s death.[118]
  • A statue of Cromwell also stands outside The Academy in Bridge Street, Warrington,[119] an historic building which is now home to the Warrington Guardian newspaper. Cromwell fought the battle of Warrington Bridge against Scottish Royalists in the town in 1648.
  • As First Lord of the Admiralty before the First World War, Winston Churchill suggested naming a British battleship HMS Oliver Cromwell. The suggestion did not meet with royal approval.[120]
  • In 1940 “Cromwell” was the codeword warning that German invasion of Britain was imminent.

[edit] In popular culture

  • Cromwell’s adoption by the French Romantic movement was typified by Victor Hugo’s 1827 play Cromwell, often considered to be symbolic of the French romantic movement, which represents Cromwell as a ruthless yet dynamic Romantic hero. A similar impression of a world-changing individual with a strong will and personality was provided in 1831 in the picture by French artist Hippolyte Delaroche, depicting the legendary visit by Cromwell to the body of Charles I after the King’s execution.
  • 1970 saw the release of the Ken Hughes film Cromwell starring Richard Harris in the leading role. To Kill a King, a film of 2003 focussed on the relationship between Dougray Scott as Fairfax and Tim Roth as Cromwell, with Rupert Everett as King Charles I. Jack Shepherd’s 2004 play Through a Cloud, set in 1656, imagines a meeting between Cromwell and John Milton.
  • Cromwell has also appeared in popular song, such as:
  • Oliver Cromwell, played by Dominic West, is one of the main characters in the 2008 Channel 4 TV miniseries The Devil's Whore.
  • Popular Australian fantasy author Kate Forsyth's made Oliver Cromwell in her series The Chain of Charms.
  • Protagonist “Alucard” of the Japanese manga, Hellsing, refers to his power limitation system as the Cromwell Authorization System.
  • In the The Adventures of Luther Arkwright, a comic book fantasy adventure spanning countless alternative universes, modern day England is a fascist theocracy ruled by a descendant of Cromwell.
  • Orson Scott Card’s alternate historical fantasy novel series The Tales of Alvin Maker diverges from reality in that folk magic actually works, and because (unknown to him — he would’ve executed them for witchcraft had he known) at least one of his physicians had a healing “knack,” Cromwell did not die so young, so the English Restoration never happened, causing drastic alterations in the 19th Century North American setting of the series (e.g. there were four separate nations in the area occupied by the real United States of the time, only one of which had that name). Cromwell himself does not appear in the series.
  • “Cromwell Road” remains a popular street name in many British towns and cities, and towns in New Zealand and the United States have been named “Cromwell.”

[edit] Footnotes

  1. ^ "Ten greatest Britons chosen". BBC. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/entertainment/tv_and_radio/2341661.stm. Retrieved 2008-11-27. 
  2. ^ genocidal or near-genocidal:
    • Breton Albert (ed). 1995, Nationalism and Rationality, Cambridge University Press, Chapter Regulating nations and ethnic communities by Brendam O'Leary and John McGarry p 248. "Oliver Cromwell offered the Irish Catholics a choice between genocide and forced mass population transfer. They could go 'To Hell or to Connaught!'"
    • Coogan Tim-Pat, . 2002. The Troubles: Ireland's Ordeal and the Search for Peace. ISBN 978-0312294182. Page 6. "The massacres by Catholics of Protestants, which occurred in the religious wars of the 1640s, were magnified for propagandist purposes to justify Cromwell's subsequent genocide."
    • Ellis, Peter Berresford. 2002. Eyewitness to Irish History. John Wiley & Sons Inc. Page 108. ISBN 978-0471266334. "It was to be the justification for Cromwell's genocidal campaign and settlement."
    • Levene Mark, 2005, Genocide in the Age of the Nation-State, I.B.Tauris: London: "Considered overall, an Irish population collapse from 1.5 or possibly over 2 million inhabitants at the onset of the Irish wars in 1641, to no more than 850,000 eleven years later represents an absolutely devastating demographic catastrophe. Undoubted the largest proportion of this massive death toll did not arise from direct massacre but from hunger and then bubonic plagues, especially from the outbreak between 1649 and 1652. Even so, the relationship to the worst years of the fighting is all too apparent. [The Act of Settlement of Ireland], and the parliamentary legislation which succeeded it the following year, is the nearest thing on paper in the English, and more broadly British, domestic record, to a programme of state-sanctioned and systematic ethnic cleansing of another people. The fact that it did not include 'total' genocide in its remit, or that it failed to put into practice the vast majority of its proposed expulsions, ultimately, however, says less about the lethal determination of its makers and more about the political, structural and financial weakness of the early modern English state. For instance, though the Act begins rather ominously by claiming that it was not its intention to extirpate the whole Irish nation, it then goes on to list five categories of people who, as participators in or alleged supporters of the 1641 rebellion and its aftermath, would automatically be forfeit of their lives. It has been suggested that as many as 100,000 people would have been liable under these headings. A further five categories - by implication an even larger body of 'passive' supporters of the rebellion - were to be spared their lives but not their property."
    • Levene, Mark. 2005. Genocide in the Age of the Nation State: Volume 2. Page 55, 56 & 57. A sample quote describes the Cromwellian campaign and settlement as "a conscious attempt to reduce a distinct ethnic population". ISBN 978-1845110574
    • Levene, Mark and Roberts Penny. 1999, The Massacre in History, Berghahn Books: Oxford: "Further evidence for a massacre-ridden civil war in Ireland appears to come from population figures. Though military and civilian deaths from civil war were not light in England or in Scotland, in neither country did war inflict a clear drop in population level. It was otherwise in Ireland. Up to 1641 the population had risen steadily: one million in 1500, 1.4 in 1600, 2.1 in 1641; but then there occurred a sharp fall so that numbers stood at 1.7 million by 1672. After this, renewed growth took the population to 2.2 million in 1687, and 2.8 in 1712. By far the greater part of this massive decline - some four hundred thousand people or 19% of the 1641 population - took place in the 1640s and 1650, and was the direct or indirect result of over a decade of warfare. Ireland's civil war death toll is comparable to the devastation suffered during the Second World War by countries such as the Soviet Union, Poland, or Yugoslavia, and suggests that the war-time massacres which so contributed to these horrific modern figures, also occurred in mid-seventeenth-century Ireland."
    • Lutz,James M and Lutz Brenda J, 2004. Global Terrorism, Routledge, London, p.193: "The draconian laws applied by Oliver Cromwell in Ireland were an early version of ethnic cleansing. The Catholic Irish were to be expelled to the northwestern areas of the island. Relocation rather than extermination was the goal."
    • O'Leary, Brendan, Callaghy Thomas M., Ian S. Lustick, 2001, Right-Sizing the State: The Politics of Moving Borders, Oxford University Press: "Ethnic expulsion is a right-peopling strategy, the intended, direct or indirect, forcible movement by state officials, or sanctioned paramilitaries, of the whole or part of a community from its current homeland, usually beyond the sovereign borders of the state. A population can also be forcibly 'repatriated', or pushed back towards its alleged 'homeland', as happened to blacks during the high tide of apartheid in South Africa. We may distinguish two paradigm forms: creating 'Serbian exiles', that is coerced transfers within a state or empire, and 'creating refugees', that is, the expulsion of populations beyond the sovereign border. Examples of the former include the treatment of indigenous peoples throughout the world; the Irish Catholics moved by Oliver Cromwell to Connaught during 1649-50 and after; and national minorities within the Soviet Union."
    • Stewart, Frances. War and Underdevelopment: Economic and Social Consequences of Conflict v. 1, (Queen Elizabeth House Series in Development Studies), Oxford University Press. 2000. "Faced with the prospect of an Irish alliance with Charles II, Cromwell carried out a series of massacres to subdue the Irish. Then, once Cromwell had returned to England, the English Commissary, General Henry Ireton, adopted a deliberate policy of crop burning and starvation, which was responsible for the majority of an estimated 600,000 deaths out of a total Irish population of 1,400,000."
    • Ethnic Cleansing of Ireland, International Institute of Social History Website (Based in the Netherlands), "Roman Catholic Irish were subdued to ethnic cleansing policy by Oliver Cromwell. After his suppression of a rebellion against the English in 1649 he ordered that the Irish were allowed to live west of the Shannon river only. During guerrilla warfare that followed thousands of Irish died or were sold as slaves to America. Cromwell had promised Irish land to the business investors and soldiers who had helped him perform his expeditions. The 'Act for the Attainder of the Rebels in Ireland' of 17 September 1656 is part of this programme. The land of rebels is attained and 'rebels' are defined in such a way that all Catholics match. By the end of 1656 four fifths of the Irish land was in Protestant hands."
  3. ^ "Of all these doings in Cromwell's Irish Chapter, each of us may say what he will. Yet to everyone it will at least be intelligible how his name came to be hated in the tenacious heart of Ireland". John Morley, Biography of Oliver Cromwell. Page 298. 1900 and 2001. ISBN 978-1421267074.; "Cromwell is still a hate figure in Ireland today because of the brutal effectiveness of his campaigns in Ireland. Of course, his victories in Ireland made him a hero in Protestant England." [1] British National Archives web site. Accessed March 2007; [2] From a history site dedicated to the English Civil War. "... making Cromwell's name into one of the most hated in Irish history". Accessed March 2007. Site currently offline. WayBack Machine holds archive here [3]
  4. ^  ; From the Channel 4 History site: [4] "Cromwell's name has always been execrated by Irish Catholics for the massacre at Drogheda. He is also hated for the transplanting of Protestant settlers to Ireland, a policy established in the reign of Elizabeth I." Accessed March 2007.
  5. ^ David Plant. "Oliver Cromwell 1599-1658". British-civil-wars.co.uk. http://www.british-civil-wars.co.uk/biog/oliver-cromwell.htm. Retrieved 2008-11-27. 
  6. ^ "Cromwell". Tudorplace.com.ar. http://www.tudorplace.com.ar/CROMWELL.htm. Retrieved 2008-11-27. 
  7. ^ Gaunt, p.31.
  8. ^ Speech to the First Protectorate Parliament, 4 September 1654, quoted in Roots, Ivan (1989). Speeches of Oliver Cromwell (Everyman's Classics), ISBN 0-460-01254-1, p.42.
  9. ^ British Civil Wars, Commonwealth and Proctectorate 1638-1660
  10. ^ Cromwell, Oliver in Venn, J. & J. A., Alumni Cantabrigienses, Cambridge University Press, 10 vols, 1922–1958.
  11. ^ Cromwell: Our Chief of Men, by Antonia Fraser, 1973, ISBN 0297765566, Weidenfeld and Nicolson, p. 24.
  12. ^ Morrill, John (1990). "The Making of Oliver Cromwell", in Morrill, John (ed.), Oliver Cromwell and the English Revolution (Longman), ISBN 0-582-01675-4, p.24.
  13. ^ British Civil Wars, Commonwealthand Proctectorate 1638-1660
  14. ^ Gardiner, Samuel Rawson (1901). Oliver Cromwell, ISBN 1-4179-4961-9, p.4; Gaunt, Peter (1996). Oliver Cromwell (Blackwell), ISBN 0-631-18356-6, p.23.
  15. ^ a b Morrill, p.34.
  16. ^ Morrill, pp.24–33.
  17. ^ Gaunt, p.34.
  18. ^ Morrill, pp.25-26.
  19. ^ Cromwell: Our Chief of Men, by Antonia Fraser, Weidenfeld and Nicolson, London 1973
  20. ^ Adamson, John (1990). "Oliver Cromwell and the Long Parliament", in Morrill, p.57.
  21. ^ Adamson, p.53.
  22. ^ David Plant. "1643: Civil War in Lincolnshire". British-civil-wars.co.uk. http://www.british-civil-wars.co.uk/military/1643-lincolnshire.htm#gainsborough. Retrieved 2008-11-27. 
  23. ^ Cromwell: Our Chief of Men, by Antonia Fraser, London 1973, ISBN 0297765566, Weidenfeld and Nicolson, pp. 120-129.
  24. ^ Letter to Sir William Spring, September 1643, quoted in Carlyle, Thomas (ed.) (1904 edition). Oliver Cromwell's letters and speeches, with elucidations, vol I, p.154; also quoted in Young and Holmes (2000). The English Civil War, (Wordsworth), ISBN 1840222220, p.107.
  25. ^ "Sermons of Rev Martin Camoux: Oliver Cromwell". http://trinitychurchsutton.org.uk/Sermons/Sermon_999.htm. 
  26. ^ Kenyon, John & Ohlmeyer, Jane (eds.) (2000). The Civil Wars: A Military History of England, Scotland, and Ireland 1638-1660 (Oxford University Press), ISBN 0-19-280278-X, p.141
  27. ^ Woolrych, Austin (1990). Cromwell as a soldier, in Morrill, pp.117–118.
  28. ^ Cromwell: Our Chief of Men, by Antonia Fraser, London 1973, Weidenfeld and Nicolson, ISBN 0297765566, pp. 154-161
  29. ^ Coward, pp.188-95.
  30. ^ Although there is debate over whether Cromwell and Ireton were the authors of the Heads of Proposals or acting on behalf of Saye and Sele: Adamson, John (1987). "The English Nobility and the Projected Settlement of 1647", in Historical Journal, 30, 3; Kishlansky, Mark (1990). "Saye What?" in Historical Journal 33, 4.
  31. ^ Woolrych, Austin (1987). Soldiers and Statesmen: the General Council of the Army and its Debates (Clarendon Press), ISBN 0-19-822752-3, ch.2–5.
  32. ^ "Spartacus: Rowland Laugharne at www.Spartacus.Schoolnet.co.uk". http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/STUlaugharneJ.htm. 
  33. ^ Gardiner, pp.144–47; Gaunt (1997) 94-97.
  34. ^ Adamson, pp.76–84.
  35. ^ Quoted in Lenihan, Padraig (2000). Confederate Catholics at War (Cork University Press), ISBN 1-85918-244-5, p.115.
  36. ^ Fraser, pp.74-76.
  37. ^ Fraser, pp.326-328.
  38. ^ a b Kenyon & Ohlmeyer, p.98.
  39. ^ Cromwell, Oliver (1846). Thomas Carlyle. ed. Oliver Cromwell's letters and speeches, with elucidations. William H. Colyer. pp. 128. http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SvQoAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA128&dq=%22I+am+persuaded+that+this+is+a+righteous+judgment+of+God+upon+these+barbarous+wretches%22&cd=5#v=onepage&q=%22I%20am%20persuaded%20that%20this%20is%20a%20righteous%20judgment%20of%20God%20upon%20these%20barbarous%20wretches%22&f=false. Retrieved 22/01/10. 
  40. ^ Fraser, Antonia (1973). Cromwell, Our Chief of Men, and Cromwell: the Lord Protector (Phoenix Press), ISBN 0-7538-1331-9 pp.344-46.
  41. ^ a b Kenyon & Ohlmeyer, p.100.
  42. ^ Fraser, pp.321-322; Lenihan, p.113.
  43. ^ Fraser, p.355.
  44. ^ Kenyon, Ohlmeyer, p.314.
  45. ^ Christopher Hill, 1972, God's Englishman: Oliver Cromwell and the English Revolution, Penguin Books: London, p.108: "The brutality of the Cromwellian conquest of Ireland is not one of the pleasanter aspects of our hero's career ..."
  46. ^ Barry Coward, 1991, Oliver Cromwell, Pearson Education: Rugby, p.74: "Revenge was not Cromwell's only motive for the brutality he condoned at Wexford and Drogheda, but it was the dominant one ..."
  47. ^ Philip McKeiver, 2007, A New History of Cromwell's Irish Campaign
  48. ^ Micheal O'Siochru, 2008, God's Executioner, Oliver Cromwell and the Conquest of Ireland, p. 83, 90
  49. ^ O'Callaghan, Sean (2000). To Hell or Barbados. Brandon. ISBN 0863222870. 
  50. ^ Lenihan, p.1O22; "After Cromwell returned to England in 1650, the conflict degenerated into a grindingly slow counter insurgency campaign punctuated by some quite protracted sieges...the famine of 1651 onwards was a man made response to stubborn guerrilla warfare. Collective reprisals against the civilian population included forcing them out of designated 'no man's lands' and the systematic destruction of foodstuffs".
  51. ^ a b Reilly, Tom, Cromwell - An Honourable Enemy: The Untold Story of the Cromwellian Invasion of Ireland (2000).
  52. ^ Woolrych, Austin (1990). Cromwell as soldier, in Morrill, John (ed.), Oliver Cromwell and the English Revolution (Longman), ISBN 0-582-01675-4, p. 112: "viewed in the context of the German wars that had just ended after thirty years of fighting, the massacres at Drogheda and Wexford shrink to typical casualties of seventeenth-century warfare".
  53. ^ J.C. Davis, Oliver Cromwell, pp. 108-110.
  54. ^ Abbott, Writings and Speeches, vol II, p.124.
  55. ^ Woolrych, Austin (1990). Cromwell as soldier, p. 111; Gaunt, p. 117.
  56. ^ Lenihan, p.168.
  57. ^ Gaunt, p.116.
  58. ^ Stevenson, Cromwell, Scotland and Ireland, in Morrill, p.151.
  59. ^ [5] "From the Author"..."The reaction - among the under forties on the whole - was good, but among historians and the over forties it was bad. They can't seem to accept that an amateur could discover such a fundamental flaw in Irish history, i.e. that neither Cromwell or his men ever engaged in the killing of any unarmed civilians throughout his entire nine month campaign."
  60. ^ John Morrill. "Rewriting Cromwell: A Case of Deafening Silences." Canadian Journal of History. December 2003: 19.
  61. ^ "Eugene Coyle. Review of Cromwell - An Honourable Enemy. History Ireland". http://web.archive.org/web/20010221184835/http://www.historyireland.com/resources/reviews/review1.html. 
  62. ^ Micheal O'Siochru, 2008, God's Executioner, Oliver Cromwell and the Conquest of Ireland, p. 83-93
  63. ^ Citations for genocide, near genocide and ethnic cleansing:
    • Albert Breton (Editor, 1995). Nationalism and Rationality. Cambridge University Press 1995. Page 248. "Oliver Cromwell offered Irish Catholics a choice between genocide and forced mass population transfer"
    • Ukrainian Quarterly. Ukrainian Society of America 1944. "Therefore, we are entitled to accuse the England of Oliver Cromwell of the genocide of the Irish civilian population.."
    • David Norbrook (2000).Writing the English Republic: Poetry, Rhetoric and Politics, 1627-1660. Cambridge University Press. 2000. In interpreting Andrew Marvell's contemporarily expressed views on Cromwell Norbrook says; "He (Cromwell) laid the foundation for a ruthless programme of resettling the Irish Catholics which amounted to large scale ethnic cleansing."
    • Alan Axelrod (2002). Profiles in Leadership, Prentice-Hall. 2002. Page 122. "As a leader Cromwell was entirely unyielding. He was willing to act on his beliefs, even if this meant killing the king and perpetrating, against the Irish, something very nearly approaching genocide"
    • John Morrill (2003). Rewriting Cromwell - A Case of Deafening Silences, Canadian Journal of History. December 2003. "Of course, this has never been the Irish view of Cromwell. Most Irish remember him as the man responsible for the mass slaughter of civilians at Drogheda and Wexford and as the agent of the greatest episode of ethnic cleansing ever attempted in Western Europe as, within a decade, the percentage of land possessed by Catholics born in Ireland dropped from sixty to twenty. In a decade, the ownership of two-fifths of the land mass was transferred from several thousand Irish Catholic landowners to British Protestants. The gap between Irish and the English views of the seventeenth-century conquest remains unbridgeable and is governed by O.K. Chesterton's mirthless epigram of 1917, that "it was a tragic necessity that the Irish should remember it; but it was far more tragic that the English forgot it."
    • James M Lutz, Brenda J Lutz, (2004). Global Terrorism, Routledge:London, p.193: "The draconian laws applied by Oliver Cromwell in Ireland were an early version of ethnic cleansing. The Catholic Irish were to be expelled to the northwestern areas of the island. Relocation rather than extermination was the goal."
    • Mark Levene (2005). Genocide in the Age of the Nation State: Volume 2. ISBN 978-1845110574 Page 55, 56 & 57. A sample quote describes the Cromwellian campaign and settlement as "a conscious attempt to reduce a distinct ethnic population".
    • Mark Levene (2005). Genocide in the Age of the Nation-State, I.B.Tauris: London:

      [The Act of Settlement of Ireland], and the parliamentary legislation which succeeded it the following year, is the nearest thing on paper in the English, and more broadly British, domestic record, to a programme of state-sanctioned and systematic ethnic cleansing of another people. The fact that it did not include 'total' genocide in its remit, or that it failed to put into practice the vast majority of its proposed expulsions, ultimately, however, says less about the lethal determination of its makers and more about the political, structural and financial weakness of the early modern English state.

  64. ^ Frances Stewart (2000). War and Underdevelopment: Economic and Social Consequences of Conflict v. 1 (Queen Elizabeth House Series in Development Studies), Oxford University Press. 2000. "Faced with the prospect of an Irish alliance with Charles II, Cromwell carried out a series of massacres to subdue the Irish. Then, once Cromwell had returned to England, the English Commissary, General Henry Ireton, adopted a deliberate policy of crop burning and starvation, which was responsible for the majority of an estimated 600,000 deaths out of a total Irish population of 1,400,000."
  65. ^ Winston S. Churchill, 1957, A History of the English Speaking Peoples: The Age of Revolution, Dodd, Mead and Company: New York (p. 9): "We have seen the many ties which at one time or another have joined the inhabitants of the Western islands, and even in Ireland itself offered a tolerable way of life to Protestants and Catholics alike. Upon all of these Cromwell's record was a lasting bane. By an uncompleted process of terror, by an iniquitous land settlement, by the virtual proscription of the Catholic religion, by the bloody deeds already described, he cut new gulfs between the nations and the creeds. "Hell or Connaught" were the terms he thrust upon the native inhabitants, and they for their part, across three hundred years, have used as their keenest expression of hatred "The Curse of Cromwell on you." The consequences of Cromwell's rule in Ireland have distressed and at times distracted English politics down even to the present day. To heal them baffled the skill and loyalties of successive generations. They became for a time a potent obstacle to the harmony of the English-speaking people through-out the world. Upon all of us there still lies 'the curse of Cromwell'.
  66. ^ Abbott, W.C. (1929). Writings and Speeches of Oliver Cromwell, Harvard University Press, pp.196-205.
  67. ^ a b Abbott, p.202.
  68. ^ Abbott, p.205.
  69. ^ Lenihan, p.115.
  70. ^ Gardiner, p.194.
  71. ^ Stevenson, David (1990). Cromwell, Scotland and Ireland, in Morrill, John (ed.), Oliver Cromwell and the English Revolution (Longman), ISBN 0-582-01675-4, p.155.
  72. ^ a b Kenyon & Ohlmeyer, p.66.
  73. ^ Cromwell: Our Chief of Men, by Antonia Fraser, London 1973, Weidenfeld and Nicolson, ISBN 0297765566, pp. 385-389.
  74. ^ [6]
  75. ^ Kenyon & Ohlmeyer, p.306.
  76. ^ Parker, Geoffrey (2003). Empire, War and Faith in Early Modern Europe, p.281.
  77. ^ Kenyon & Ohlmeyer, p.320.
  78. ^ Worden, Blair (1977). The Rump Parliament (Cambridge University Press), ISBN 0-521-29213-1, ch.16-17.
  79. ^ Abbott, p.643
  80. ^ Abbott, p.642-643.
  81. ^ Roots, Ivan (1989). Speeches of Oliver Cromwell (Everyman classics), ISBN 0-460-01254-1, pp.8-27.
  82. ^ Woolrych, Austin (1982). Commonwealth to Protectorate (Clarendon Press), ISBN 0-19-822659-4, ch.5-10.
  83. ^ Gaunt, p.155.
  84. ^ Gaunt, p.156.
  85. ^ A History of Britain - The Stuarts. Ladybird. 1991. ISBN 0-7214-3370-7. 
  86. ^ Hirst, Derek (1990). "The Lord Protector, 1653–8", in Morrill, p.172.
  87. ^ Quoted in Hirst, p.127.
  88. ^ "Cromwell, At the Opening of Parliament Under the Protectorate (1654)". Strecorsoc.org. http://www.strecorsoc.org/docs/cromwell.html. Retrieved 2008-11-27. 
  89. ^ Roots, pp.41-56.
  90. ^ Hirst, p.173.
  91. ^ Durston, Christopher (1998). The Fall of Cromwell's Major-Generals in English Historical Review 1998 113(450): pp.18–37, ISSN 0013-8266 .
  92. ^ Hirst, p.137.
  93. ^ Roots, p.128.
  94. ^ Worden, Blair (1985). "Oliver Cromwell and the sin of Achan", in Beales, D. and Best, G. (eds.) History, Society and the Churches, ISBN 0-521-02189-8, pp.141–145.
  95. ^ Gaunt, p.204.
  96. ^ "Cambridge County Council website". http://www.cambridgeshire.gov.uk/leisure/museums/cromwell/online/. 
  97. ^ Westminster Abbey site news
  98. ^ Staff. "Roundhead on the Pike", Time magazine, 6 May, 1957
  99. ^ By Terri Schlichenmeyer. "Missing body parts of famous people". CNN. http://www.cnn.com/2007/LIVING/wayoflife/08/21/mf.missing.famous/index.html?imw=Y&iref=mpstoryemail. Retrieved 2008-11-27. 
  100. ^ Gaunt, p.4.
  101. ^ Cromwell's head, the Cromwell Museum, Cambridgeshire County Council
  102. ^ Morrill, John (1990). "Cromwell and his contemporaries", in Morrill, pp.263–4.
  103. ^ Morrill, pp.271–2.
  104. ^ Morrill, pp.279–281.
  105. ^ a b Gaunt, p.9.
  106. ^ Worden, Blair (2001). Roundhead Reputations: The English Civil Wars and the Passions of Posterity (Penguin), ISBN 0141006943, pp.53–59
  107. ^ Gardiner, p.315.
  108. ^ Worden, pp.256–260.
  109. ^ Gardiner, p.318.
  110. ^ Morrill, John (1990). "Textualising and Contextualising Cromwell", in Historical Journal, 33, 3, pp.629-639.
  111. ^ Woolrych, Austin (1990). "The Cromwellian Protectorate: a Military Dictatorship?" in History 1990 75(244): 207-231, ISSN 0018-2648.
  112. ^ Morrill (2004). "Cromwell, Oliver (1599–1658)", in Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, (Oxford University Press) [7]; Worden, Blair (1985). "Oliver Cromwell and the sin of Achan". In Beales, D. and Best, G., History, Society and the Churches; Davis, J.C. (1990). "Cromwell’s religion", in Morrill, John (ed.), Oliver Cromwell and the English Revolution (Longman).
  113. ^ "Westminster Abbey site: Oliver Cromwell". http://www.westminster-abbey.org/our-history/people/oliver-cromwell. 
  114. ^ "Francis Frith Manchester: selected extracts". http://www.francisfrith.com/pageloader.asp?page=/shop/books/bookcontent.asp&isbn=1-85937-266-X&start=61. 
  115. ^ "Papillon Graphics' Virtual Encyclopaedia of Greater Manchester". http://www.manchester2002-uk.com/history/history2.html. 
  116. ^ "Extract from Hansard". http://hansard.millbanksystems.com/commons/1899/apr/25/statue-of-oliver-cromwell. 
  117. ^ "icons.org: The Cromwell Statue at Westminster". http://www.icons.org.uk/nom/nominations/cromwell. 
  118. ^ "Cromwell conservation work - www.parliament.uk". http://www.parliament.uk/about/visiting/exhibitions/cromwell_conservation.cfm. 
  119. ^ http://www.geograph.org.uk/photo/60029
  120. ^ Kenneth Rose, King George V, New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1984, p. 160f.

[edit] References

  • Adamson, John (1990). "Oliver Cromwell and the Long Parliament", in Morrill, John (ed.), Oliver Cromwell and the English Revolution Longman, ISBN 0582016754
  • Adamson, John (1987). "The English Nobility and the Projected Settlement of 1647", in Historical Journal, 30, 3.
  • BBC Radio 4 - This Sceptred Isle - The Execution of Charles I. "Sorrell accuses Murdoch of panic buying", BBC Radio 4. Accessed 4 November 2007.
  • Carlyle, Thomas (ed.) (1904 edition). Oliver Cromwell's letters and speeches, with elucidations [8]PDF (40.2 MB);
  • Coward, Barry (2003). The Stuart Age: England, 1603-1714, Longman, ISBN 0582772516
  • Durston, Christopher (1998). The Fall of Cromwell's Major-Generals, in English Historical Review 1998 113(450): pp. 18–37, ISSN 0013-8266
  • Gardiner, Samuel Rawson (1901). Oliver Cromwell, ISBN 1417949619
  • Gaunt, Peter (1996). Oliver Cromwell Blackwell, ISBN 0631183566
  • Hirst, Derek (1990). The Lord Protector, 1653-8, in Morrill, John (ed.), Oliver Cromwell and the English Revolution Longman, ISBN 0582016754
  • Kenyon, John & Ohlmeyer, Jane (eds.) (2000). The Civil Wars: A Military History of England, Scotland, and Ireland 1638-1660 Oxford University Press, ISBN 019280278X
  • Kishlansky, Mark (1990), "Saye What?" in Historical Journal 33, 4.
  • Lenihan, Padraig (2000). Confederate Catholics at War Cork University Press, ISBN 1859182445
  • Morrill, John (1990). '"Cromwell and his contemporaries", in Morrill, John (ed.), Oliver Cromwell and the English Revolution Longman, ISBN 0582016754
  • Morrill, John (1990). "The Making of Oliver Cromwell", in Morrill, John (ed.), Oliver Cromwell and the English Revolution Longman, ISBN 0582016754
  • O'Siochru, Micheal (2008). God's Executioner, Oliver Cromwell and the Conquest of Ireland, Faber and Faber, ISBN 9780571-241217
  • Roots, Ivan (1989). Speeches of Oliver Cromwell Everyman classics, ISBN 0460012541
  • Woolrych, Austin (1982). Commonwealth to Protectorate Clarendon Press, ISBN 0198226594
  • Woolrych, Austin (1990). "Cromwell as a soldier" in Morrill, John (ed.), Oliver Cromwell and the English Revolution Longman, ISBN 0582016754
  • Woolrych, Austin (1987). Soldiers and Statesmen: the General Council of the Army and its Debates (Clarendon Press), ISBN 0198227523
  • Worden, Blair (1985). "Oliver Cromwell and the sin of Achan", in Beales, D. and Best, G. (eds.) History, Society and the Churches, ISBN 0521021898
  • Worden, Blair (2001). Roundhead Reputations: the English Civil Wars and the passions of posterity Penguin, ISBN 0141006943
  • Worden, Blair (1977). The Rump Parliament Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0521292131
  • Worden, Blair (2000). "Thomas Carlyle and Oliver Cromwell", in Proceedings Of The British Academy 105: pp. 131–170. ISSN 0068-1202
  • Young, Peter and Holmes, Richard (2000). The English Civil War Wordsworth, ISBN 1840222220

Biographies

Military studies

  • Durston, Christopher (2000). "'Settling the Hearts and Quieting the Minds of All Good People': the Major-generals and the Puritan Minorities of Interregnum England", in History 2000 85(278): pp. 247–267, ISSN 0018-2648 . Full text online at Ebsco.
  • Durston, Christopher (1998). "The Fall of Cromwell's Major-Generals", in English Historical Review 1998 113(450): pp. 18–37, ISSN 0013-8266
  • Firth, C.H. (1921). Cromwell's Army Greenhill Books, ISBN 1853671207
  • Gillingham, J. (1976). Portrait Of A Soldier: Cromwell Weidenfeld & Nicholson, ISBN 0297771485
  • Kenyon, John & Ohlmeyer, Jane (eds.) (2000). The Civil Wars: A Military History of England, Scotland, and Ireland 1638-1660 Oxford University Press, ISBN 019280278X
  • Kitson, Frank (2004). Old Ironsides: The Military Biography of Oliver Cromwell Weidenfeld Military, ISBN 0297846884
  • Marshall, Alan (2004). Oliver Cromwell: Soldier: The Military Life of a Revolutionary at War Brassey's, ISBN 1857533437
  • McKeiver, Philip (2007). "A New History of Cromwell's Irish Campaign", Advance Press, Manchester, ISBN 9780955466304
  • Woolrych, Austin (1990). "The Cromwellian Protectorate: a Military Dictatorship?" in History 1990 75(244): 207-231, ISSN 0018-2648 . Full text online at Ebsco.
  • Woolrych, Austin (1990). "Cromwell as a soldier", in Morrill, John (ed.), Oliver Cromwell and the English Revolution Longman, ISBN 0582016754
  • Young, Peter and Holmes, Richard (2000). The English Civil War, Wordsworth, ISBN 1840222220

Surveys of era

Primary sources

  • Abbott, W.C. (ed.) (1937-47). Writings and Speeches of Oliver Cromwell, 4 vols. The standard academic reference for Cromwell's own words. [9].
  • Carlyle, Thomas (ed.) (1904 edition), Oliver Cromwell's letters and speeches, with elucidations. [10]PDF (40.2 MB);
  • Haykin, Michael A. G. (ed.) (1999). To Honour God: The Spirituality of Oliver Cromwell Joshua Press, ISBN 1894400038. Excerpts from Cromwell's religious writings.
  • Morrill, John (1990). "Textualizing and Contextualizing Cromwell", in Historical Journal 1990 33(3): pp. 629–639. ISSN 0018-246X . Full text online at Jstor. Examines the Carlyle and Abbott editions.
  • Roots, Ivan (1989). Speeches of Oliver Cromwell Everyman classics, ISBN 0460012541
  • Worden, Blair (2000). Thomas Carlyle and Oliver Cromwell, in Proceedings Of The British Academy 105: pp. 131–170, ISSN 0068-1202.

[edit] External links

Find more about Oliver Cromwell on Wikipedia's sister projects:

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[edit] Books about Oliver Cromwell available online

[edit] Other links

Political offices
Preceded by Council of State Lord Protector of England, Scotland and Ireland 16 December 1653-3 September 1658 Succeeded by Richard Cromwell
Academic offices
Preceded by Earl of Pembroke Chancellor of the University of Oxford 1650–1657 Succeeded by Richard Cromwell

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References in the diary

A graph of all the references in the diary

1660
May: 15, 22
Jun: 17
Aug: 14
Sep: 19
Dec: 4
1661
Jan: 28, 30
Feb: 5
1662
Feb: 18
Mar: 12, 14
Jun: 23
Sep: 3
Oct: 15
1663
Mar: 9
Nov: 9
Dec: 14
1664
Jan: 8
Feb: 19, 22
Sep: 6
Oct: 13
Dec: 2, 15
1665
Apr: 12
Jul: 5
Dec: 15
1666
Nov: 9, 19
1667
Feb: 8